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          <TitleText>The Air and its Secrets</TitleText>
          <Subtitle>A history of atmospheric science</Subtitle>
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        <PersonName>Guy Brasseur</PersonName>
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        <BiographicalNote language="fre">&lt;p&gt;Guy Brasseur est attaché à l’Institut Max Planck de Météorologie à Hambourg (Allemagne), et au National Center for Atmospheric Research à Boulder (Colorado, Etats-Unis). Il est membre de l’Academia Europaea, de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, du Conseil Scientifique du CNRS. Ses travaux portent sur le problème de l’ozone stratosphérique, de la qualité de l’air et des changements climatiques.&lt;/p&gt;</BiographicalNote>
        <BiographicalNote language="eng">&lt;p&gt;Guy Brasseur is affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg, Germany, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, USA. A member of the Academia Europaea, the Royal Academy of Belgium, the Max Planck Society and the Scientific Council of the CNRS, his research focuses on the problems of stratospheric ozone, air quality and climate change.&lt;/p&gt;</BiographicalNote>
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        <SubjectHeadingText>Air;gas;upper atmosphere;lower atmosphere;climate change;pollution;climate;ozone;air quality;history of science</SubjectHeadingText>
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        <Text>&lt;p&gt;AIR, this invisible medium that surrounds us, makes life possible. According to Baudelaire, air ‘is full of the thrill of things that flee’; indeed, it holds a multitude of secrets that philosophers, naturalists and other scientists have tried to unravel over the centuries. In this book, the author outlines the major scientific advances that have led to the discovery of the physical properties and chemical composition of air, the dynamic properties of the Earth’s atmosphere, the mechanisms that lead to the formation of storms and other weather events, and the natural and anthropogenic processes responsible for climate change, ozone depletion and air quality.&lt;/p&gt;</Text>
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        <Text>&lt;p&gt;In this book, the author outlines the scientific advances that have led to the discovery of the physical properties and chemical composition of air, the dynamic properties of the Earth’s atmosphere, the mechanisms that lead to the formation of storms, and the natural and anthropogenic processes responsible for climate change.&lt;/p&gt;</Text>
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        <Text>&lt;p&gt;Contents&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Preamble. Air and Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A Long-Lasting Pandemic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Evolution of Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Air and Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;1. Air Pollution: A Long History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Air Pollution in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lead Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Medieval Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Industrial Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;London’s “Great Smog” in 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Los Angeles Smog. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Air Pollution in Other Parts of the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Tragedy of the Commons and Ecological Equity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;2. The Conquest of the Vertical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Weight of Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Florence’s Fountain Builders and Torricelli’s Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blaise Pascal’s Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Elastic Air of Boyle and Mariotte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Balloon Ascents and the Law of Perfect Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;3. Air or “Airs”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Galileo of Brabant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fixed Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Phlogiston Controversy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Proponents of the Phlogiston Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Proponents of the Oxygen Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Discovery of Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Trace Gases in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;4. Air in Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atmospheric Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Origin and Trajectory of Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The First Weather Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Empirical Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Theoretical Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Bergen School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Newton’s Laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Determinism of Newton and Laplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atmospheric Dynamics Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The First Numerical Weather Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Role of Electronic Computers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Development of Numerical Forecasting in the United States. . . . . . . . . 146&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atmosphere and Chaos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Turbulence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Technological Revolution and Atmospheric Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;5. The Upper Layers of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &lt;span style="white-space:pre"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;171&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Polar Aurora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Mystery of the Green Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nightglow or Airglow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Oxygen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Water Vapor and Hydrogen Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The International Geophysical Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Thermosphere, the Hydrogen Layer, and the Helium Belt. . . . . . . . . . . 203&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Ionosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;6. The Protective Ozone Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone in the Laboratory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone in the Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone Measurements in Parc Montsouris, Paris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;An Ozone Layer in the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Global Distribution of Stratospheric Ozone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Vertical Distribution of Ozone in the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Balloons to Explore the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rocket Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Space Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Photochemical Ozone Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;7. Greenhouse gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Discovery of the Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gases that Warm the Planet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nitrous Oxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Water Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Other Greenhouse Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Calculating the Greenhouse Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;8. The Photochemical Reactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Photochemistry of Stratospheric Ozone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Carbon Monoxide Photochemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Metastable Oxygen Atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;OH: The Atmospheric Detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone in the Troposphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Observations of Tropospheric Chemical Species on a Global Scale. . . . . . . . 312&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mathematical Models of Tropospheric Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;International Cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;9. Airborne Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The First Ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Particles and Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Particles in the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Organic Aerosols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aerosols and Clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Particles and Atmospheric Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aerosols and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;10. The Human Footprint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wildfires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Poison Gas as a Chemical Weapon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acid Precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Supersonic Aviation and the Ozone Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A Hole in the Ozone Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nuclear Winter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Microplastics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;11. Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;From Antiquity to the Industrial Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A Climate Change Survey in France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Svante Arrhenius and Guy Callendar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Keeling Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Polar Ice: An Archive of Climate’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Climate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Charney Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Response of the Oil Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The International Dimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Political Process and Climate Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Solutions to the Climate Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Complexity of the Earth System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Epilogue. Advances in Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Science Through the Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Antiquity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;From the Eighth to the Fourteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Fifteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Sixteenth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Eighteenth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Nineteenth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Twentieth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Twenty-First Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Future Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &lt;span style="white-space:pre"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;461&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Index of names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477&lt;/p&gt;</Text>
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        <BiographicalNote language="eng">&lt;p&gt;Guy Brasseur is affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology in Hamburg, Germany, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado, USA. A member of the Academia Europaea, the Royal Academy of Belgium, the Max Planck Society and the Scientific Council of the CNRS, his research focuses on the problems of stratospheric ozone, air quality and climate change.&lt;/p&gt;</BiographicalNote>
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        <Text>&lt;p&gt;AIR, this invisible medium that surrounds us, makes life possible. According to Baudelaire, air ‘is full of the thrill of things that flee’; indeed, it holds a multitude of secrets that philosophers, naturalists and other scientists have tried to unravel over the centuries. In this book, the author outlines the major scientific advances that have led to the discovery of the physical properties and chemical composition of air, the dynamic properties of the Earth’s atmosphere, the mechanisms that lead to the formation of storms and other weather events, and the natural and anthropogenic processes responsible for climate change, ozone depletion and air quality.&lt;/p&gt;</Text>
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        <Text>&lt;p&gt;In this book, the author outlines the scientific advances that have led to the discovery of the physical properties and chemical composition of air, the dynamic properties of the Earth’s atmosphere, the mechanisms that lead to the formation of storms, and the natural and anthropogenic processes responsible for climate change.&lt;/p&gt;</Text>
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        <Text>&lt;p&gt;Contents&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Preamble. Air and Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A Long-Lasting Pandemic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Evolution of Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Air and Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;1. Air Pollution: A Long History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Air Pollution in Ancient Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Lead Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Medieval Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Industrial Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;London’s “Great Smog” in 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Los Angeles Smog. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Air Pollution in Other Parts of the World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Tragedy of the Commons and Ecological Equity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;2. The Conquest of the Vertical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Weight of Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Florence’s Fountain Builders and Torricelli’s Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Blaise Pascal’s Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Elastic Air of Boyle and Mariotte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Balloon Ascents and the Law of Perfect Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;3. Air or “Airs”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Galileo of Brabant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fixed Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Phlogiston Controversy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Proponents of the Phlogiston Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Proponents of the Oxygen Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Discovery of Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Trace Gases in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;4. Air in Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atmospheric Circulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Origin and Trajectory of Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The First Weather Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Empirical Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Theoretical Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Bergen School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Newton’s Laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Determinism of Newton and Laplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atmospheric Dynamics Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The First Numerical Weather Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Role of Electronic Computers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Development of Numerical Forecasting in the United States. . . . . . . . . 146&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Atmosphere and Chaos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Turbulence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Technological Revolution and Atmospheric Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;5. The Upper Layers of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &lt;span style="white-space:pre"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;171&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Polar Aurora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Mystery of the Green Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nightglow or Airglow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Oxygen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Water Vapor and Hydrogen Compounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The International Geophysical Year. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Thermosphere, the Hydrogen Layer, and the Helium Belt. . . . . . . . . . . 203&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Ionosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;6. The Protective Ozone Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone in the Laboratory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone in the Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone Measurements in Parc Montsouris, Paris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;An Ozone Layer in the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Global Distribution of Stratospheric Ozone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Vertical Distribution of Ozone in the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Balloons to Explore the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rocket Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Space Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Photochemical Ozone Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;7. Greenhouse gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Discovery of the Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Gases that Warm the Planet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nitrous Oxide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Water Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Other Greenhouse Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Calculating the Greenhouse Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;8. The Photochemical Reactor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Photochemistry of Stratospheric Ozone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Carbon Monoxide Photochemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Metastable Oxygen Atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;OH: The Atmospheric Detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Ozone in the Troposphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Observations of Tropospheric Chemical Species on a Global Scale. . . . . . . . 312&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Mathematical Models of Tropospheric Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;International Cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;9. Airborne Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The First Ideas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Particles and Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Particles in the Stratosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Organic Aerosols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aerosols and Clouds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Particles and Atmospheric Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Aerosols and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;10. The Human Footprint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Wildfires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Poison Gas as a Chemical Weapon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acid Precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Supersonic Aviation and the Ozone Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A Hole in the Ozone Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Nuclear Winter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Microplastics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;11. Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;From Antiquity to the Industrial Revolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A Climate Change Survey in France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Svante Arrhenius and Guy Callendar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Keeling Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Polar Ice: An Archive of Climate’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Climate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Charney Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Response of the Oil Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The International Dimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Political Process and Climate Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Solutions to the Climate Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Complexity of the Earth System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Epilogue. Advances in Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Science Through the Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Antiquity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;From the Eighth to the Fourteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Fifteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Sixteenth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Seventeenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Eighteenth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Nineteenth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Twentieth Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The Twenty-First Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Future Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &lt;span style="white-space:pre"&gt;&lt;/span&gt;461&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Index of names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477&lt;/p&gt;</Text>
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</ONIXMessage>
