Editorial Board of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Purposes, Importance and Development of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . 1
1.1.1 Purposes and Importance of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Development of Crop Germplasmics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Concepts, Connotation and Roles of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Basic Concepts and Connotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Categories of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Formation of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.4 Roles of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Improvement of the World’s Agricultural Development by Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Theories, Tasks and Research Directions of Crop Germplasmics. . . . 12
1.3.1 Basic Theories of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Basic Features of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Extended Features of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.4 Research Directions of Crop Germplasmics . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.5 Features of Research on Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 History, Status and Trend of Research in Crop Germplasmics . . . . . 20
1.4.1 History of Crop Germplasmics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.2 Developmental Status and Trend of Crop Germplasmics . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
CHAPTER 2
Basic Theories of Germplasmics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Introduction to the Theory of the Centres of Origin of Crops . . . . 29
2.1.1 The Centres of Origin of Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.2 Methods for Determining the Centres of Origin of Crops . . . 33
2.1.3 Crop Domestication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.4 Impacts of the Centres of Origin of Crops in Germplasm Research . . . .. . 43
2.2 The Law of Homologous Series in Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.1 Theoretical Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.2 Convergent and Divergent Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.3 Research Methods in Genetic Evolution . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.4 Crop Diffusion and Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.5 Impacts of the Law of Homologous Series in Variation on Crop Germplasm . . .. . . . . 51
2.3 The Theory of Synergistic Evolution of Crop Germplasm and Cultural Environments. . . . . . 53
2.3.1 The Preference for Waxy Food Promoted the Accumulation of Waxy Genes in Crops .. 54
2.3.2 Steaming-Based Cooking Methods Can Promote the Evolution of Crops to Match the Steamed Taste Quality . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.3 The Preference for Vegetables and Fruits and the Diversification of Preferences Promoted the Formation of Germplasm of Characteristic Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.4 The Best Use of the Materials Gives Rise to New Crop Germplasm . . .. 59
2.3.5 Impacts of the Theory of Syngergistic Evolution of Crop Germplasm and Cultural Environments on Germplasm Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
CHAPTER 3
Investigating and Collecting of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1 A Brief History of Investigating and Collecting of Crop Germplasm. . .. . . 73
3.1.1 Brief History of Crop Germplasm Investigating
and Collecting Outside of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.2 Brief History of Crop Germplasm Investigating and Collecting in China. . 74
3.1.3 Brief History of Introducing Foreign Crop Germplasm to China . . . 74
3.2 Theoretical Basis of Crop Germplasm Investigation and Collecting . .. . . . . 75
3.2.1 Unbalanced Distribution of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . 76
3.2.2 The Long-Term and Continuity of Germplasm Variation . . . .. . . 77
3.2.3 Regional Specificity of Germplasm Influenced by Human Activities . . . .. 78
3.3 Investigating and Collecting Techniques Applied to Crop Germplasm . . .. . 80
3.3.1 Selection of Priority Areas for Investigating and Collecting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.2 Investigating Techniques of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . 81
3.3.3 Collecting Methods of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.4 Specimen Collecting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4 Introduction of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.1 The Importance of Germplasm Introduction . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.2 Principles of Germplasm Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.3 Technologies of Germplasm Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.4 Precautions with Foreign Introduction of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.5 Quarantine of Introduced Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.5.1 Necessity of Quarantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.5.2 Basis for Quarantine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5.3 Transmission Pathway of Quarantine Pests . . . . . . . . . 91
3.5.4 Phytosanitary Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5.5 Quarantine and Inspection Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6 Trends in Crop Germplasm Investigating and Collecting . . . . . . . 98
3.6.1 Achievements and Trends in Germplasm Investigating and Collecting in China. . 98
3.6.2 Achievements and Trends in Introducing Germplasm . . . . . 103
3.6.3 Trends in Germplasm Investigation and Collecting . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
CHAPTER 4
Conservation of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.1 Concepts of Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.1.1 Basic Concepts of Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.1.2 Scope of Conservation Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.2 Significance of Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2.1 Maintaining Genetic Diversity and Integrity of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.2.2 Broadening the Genetic Basis for Crop Breeding and Agricultural Technological Innovation . . . . . . . . . 109
4.2.3 Playing a Critical Role in Crop Breeding, Agricultural Production, and Rural Revitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3 Basic Principles of Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.1 Integrated Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.3.2 Prolonging the Longevity and Maintaining the Genetic Integrity of Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.3.3 Maintaining Genetic Evolutionary Potential of Germplasm . . 124
4.4 Ex Situ Conservation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.1 Seed Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.2 Plant Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.4.3 In Vitro and Cryo Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.4.4 DNA Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.5 In Situ Conservation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.5.1 Physical Isolation Protection Technology . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.5.2 Mainstreaming Conservation Technology . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.5.3 On-Farm Conservation Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.5.4 In Situ Conservation Monitoring and Early Warning . . . . . 145
4.6 Research Progress and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.6.1 Ex Situ Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.6.2 In Situ Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
CHAPTER 5
Phenotypic Evaluation (Phenotyping) of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . 163
5.1 Fundamental Principles and Methods for Phenotyping of Crop Germplasm .. . . . . . . 163
5.1.1 Phenotyping: A Key to Crop Germplasm and Cultivar Development .. 163
5.1.2 Fundamental Principles and Environmental Controls in Crop Germplasm Phenotyping . .. 165
5.1.3 Major Phenotyping Methods in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . 168
5.2 Phenotyping of Agronomic Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.1 Overview of Agronomic Trait Phenotyping . . . . . . . . . 170
5.2.2 Methods and Criteria for Phenotyping Agronomic Traits . . . 174
5.3 Phenotyping of Resistance to Biotic Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.3.1 Overview of Phenotyping Biotic Stress Resistance . . . . . . 176
5.3.2 Technical Methods and Criteria for Phenotyping Crop Resistance to Diseases and Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.3.3 Types and Mechanisms of Resistance to Biotic Stresses . . . . 187
5.4 Phenotyping of Resistance to Abiotic Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.4.1 Overview of Phenotyping Crop Resistance to Abiotic Stress . . 190
5.4.2 Major Methods and Indicators for Phenotyping Crop Stress Resistance. .. . . 191
5.4.3 Types and Mechanisms of Crop Resistance to Abiotic Stresses. . . 194
5.5 Phenotyping of Quality Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.5.1 Overview of Phenotyping Crop Quality Traits . . . . . . . 195
5.5.2 Major Evaluation Methods, Indicators and Standards . . . . . 200
5.6 Phenotyping of the Use Efficiency of Environmental Resources . . . . 204
5.6.1 Overview of Phenotyping Use Efficiency of Environmental Elements by Crop Germplasm . .. . 205
5.6.2 Major Phenotyping Methods, Indicators and Standards . . . . 208
5.7 Progress and Development Trend of Phenotypic Evaluation . . . . . 210
5.7.1 Advance of Phenotypic Evaluation of Crop Germplasm in China . . . 210
5.7.2 Advances in Phenotypic Evaluation of Crop Germplasm in the World. . 218
5.7.3 Prospect of Phenotypic Evaluation of Crop Germplasm . . . 221
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
CHAPTER 6
Genotyping and Gene Discovery in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.1 Concept and Methods of Genotyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
6.1.1 Concept, Content, Significance of Genotyping . . . . . . . . 225
6.1.2 Major Technical Methods of Genotyping . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.2 Application of Genotyping in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.2.1 Genetic Diversity Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.2.2 Analysis of Selection in Domestication and Improvement . . . 232
6.2.3 Construction of Core Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6.2.4 DNA Fingerprint Database for Famous Cultivars and Crucial Germplasm. .. . 237
6.3 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . 238
6.3.1 Gene Resource Discovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
6.3.2 Methods for Gene Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.3.3 Basic Strategies of Allele Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.4 Major Achievements in Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Crop Improvement. .. 246
6.4.1 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Yield . . . . . . . . 247
6.4.2 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Biotic and Abiotic Stress Tolerance .. . . . . 247
6.4.3 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Nutrient Utilization Efficiency . . . .. . . 250
6.4.4 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Quality Traits. . . . . 251
6.4.5 Gene Discovery and Allele Mining for Adaptation . . . . . . 252
6.5 Genomics Highlights Crop Founder Genotypes in Breeding . . . . . 253
6.5.1 Founder Genotype in Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
6.5.2 Basic Ideas and Strategy in Founder Genotype Research . . . 254
6.5.3 Progress in Interpretation of Crop Founder Genotypes . . . . 254
6.6 Trends in Genotyping and Gene Discovery in Crop Germplasm . . . 256
6.6.1 High-Throughput and Accurate Genotyping of Crop Germplasm . 256
6.6.2 Intelligent Processing of Big Data for Gene Discovery and Allele Mining . .. . 257
6.6.3 Targeted Gene Discovery and Germplasm Enhancement . . . 258
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
CHAPTER 7
Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.1 Basic Theories and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.1.1 The Implication of the Crop Germplasm Enhancement. . . . 263
7.1.2 Crop Genepools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
7.1.3 The Basic Theories for Crop Germplasm Enhancement. . . . 264
7.1.4 The Basic Methods of Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . . 266
7.2 Crop Germplasm Enhancement Using Landraces . . . . . . . . . . 268
7.2.1 The Characteristics and Potential Value of Landraces. . . . . 268
7.2.2 Germplasm Enhancement Strategies with Landraces . . . . . 269
7.2.3 Application of Landraces in Crop Germplasm Enhancement. . 270
7.3 Crop Germplasm Enhancement Using Wild Relatives . . . . . . . . 279
7.3.1 Characteristics and Use Value of Crop Wild Relatives . . . . 279
7.3.2 Strategies for Crop Germplasm Enhancement Using Wild Relatives. . . 280
7.3.3 Detection and Tracking of Genetic Components of Crop Wild Relatives .. . . 282
7.3.4 Using Wild Relatives for Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . 284
7.4 Research Hotspots and Trends of Crop Germplasm Enhancement . . . 290
7.4.1 Achievements in Crop Germplasm Enhancement in China . . . 290
7.4.2 The Future Development of Crop Germplasm
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
CHAPTER 8
Crop Germplasmomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.1 Crop Germplasm Genomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.1.1 Principles of Crop Germplasm Genomics (CGG). . . . . . . 305
8.1.2 Fields, Strategies and Technologies of Crop Germplasm Genomics (CGG) .. . . . . 307
8.1.3 Major Advances in Crop Germplasm Genomics (CGG) . . . . 310
8.1.4 Issues and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.2 Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.2.1 Basic Principles of Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . 316
8.2.2 Experimental Design, Detection and Analysis Methods for Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.2.3 Progress in Crop Germplasm Epigenomics . . . . . . . . . 320
8.2.4 Issues and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.3 Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.3.1 Principles of Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . . . . . 325
8.3.2 Research Contents of Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . 327
8.3.3 Research Design and Methodology of Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . .. . . . . 328
8.3.4 Progress in Crop Germplasm Transcriptomics . . . . . . . . 331
8.3.5 Problems and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
8.4 Crop Germplasm Proteomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.4.1 Principles of Crop Germplasm Proteomics . . . . . . . . . 337
8.4.2 Research Fields in Crop Germplasm Proteomics . . . . . . . 338
8.4.3 Experimental Design and Key Techniques in Crop Germplasm Proteomics .. . . 339
8.4.4 Major Advances in Crop Germplasm Proteomics. . . . . . . 342
8.4.5 Challenges and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8.5 Crop Germplasm Metabolomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
8.5.1 The Mechanisms Underlying Metabolic Variations in Crop Germplasm . .. . . . . . 345
8.5.2 Research Foci of Crop Germplasm Metabolomics . . . . . . 345
8.5.3 Experimental Designs, Strategies and Methods in Crop Germplasm Metabolomics .. .. . 346
8.5.4 Advances in Crop Germplasm Metabolomics . . . . . . . . 348
8.5.5 Problems and Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.6 Crop Germplasm Phenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
8.6.1 Principles of Germplasm Phenomics . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.6.2 Phenotypic Research in Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.6.3 Programs and Technologies for Crop Germplasm Phenomics Research .. . . . . . . 356
8.6.4 Major Progress in Crop Germplasm Phenomics . . . . . . . 360
8.6.5 Problems and Prospects of Crop Germplasm Phenomics Research. . . 364
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
CHAPTER 9
Big Data of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.1 Concepts and Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.1.1 Overview of Crop Germplasmic Big Data. . . . . . . . . . 374
9.1.2 Framework of Crop Germplasmic Big Data System . . . . . 376
9.2 Standards and Specifications of Crop Germplasmic Data . . . . . . . 377
9.2.1 Overview of Big Data Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.2.2 Classification and Coding Standards for Crop Germplasm . . . . . . .. . . . 378
9.2.3 Metadata Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
9.2.4 Terminology and Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
9.2.5 Data Standards for Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
9.2.6 Data Quality Control Standards for Crop Germplasm . . . . 389
9.3 Data Acquisition and Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.3.1 Data Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.3.2 Data Submission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9.3.3 Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
9.3.4 Data Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
9.4 Data Analysis and Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.4.1 Classical Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.4.2 Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
9.4.3 Big Data Mining in Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . 417
9.5 Big Data Platforms and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
9.5.1 Overall Architecture of the Big Data Platforms . . . . . . . 420
9.5.2 Big Data Management Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
9.5.3 Applications of Big Data Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
9.5.4 Big Data Sharing Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
9.6 Conclusion and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
9.6.1 Major Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
9.6.2 Challenging Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
9.6.3 Future Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
CHAPTER 10
Utilization of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
10.1 Utilization of Crop Germplasm in Basic Science . . . . . . . . . . . 431
10.1.1 Contribution of Crop Germplasm to Genetics . . . . . . . . 431
10.1.2 Contribution of Crop Germplasm to Cytogenetics . . . . . . 432
10.1.3 Contribution of Crop Germplasm to Genomics . . . . . . . 433
10.1.4 The Contribution of Germplasm to the Synthesis of New Species . . 436
10.1.5 Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
10.2 Utilization of Crop Germplasm in Breeding and Production . . . . . 437
10.2.1 Utilization of Landraces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
10.2.2 Utilization of Introduced Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . 442
10.2.3 Utilization of Wild Relatives of Crops . . . . . . . . . . . 450
10.3 Crop Germplasm Sharing and Utilization Platform . . . . . . . . . 455
10.3.1 Concept and Significance of Sharing and Utilization . . . . . 455
10.3.2 Principles and Methods of Crop Germplasm Sharing . . . . . 456
10.3.3 Feedback on Germplasm Sharing and Utilization . . . . . . 459
10.3.4 Construction and Operation of the Shared Service Platform . . 459
10.4 Prospects of Crop Germplasm Utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.4.1 Strengthen Public Awareness and Improve the Germplasm Conservation and Utilization .. . . . 465
10.4.2 Accelerate the Efficient Use of Crop Germplasm by Providing Active Services .. . 465
10.4.3 Lead the Development of Seed Industry by Improving
Germplasm Enhancement Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
CHAPTER 11
Value Assessment and Property Rights Protection of Crop Germplasm . . . 471
11.1 Importance of Value Assessment and Protection of Property Rights . . 471
11.1.1 Value Assessment Provides Important Evidence for Decision-Making on Conservation and Use of Germplasm . . . 471
11.1.2 Protection of Property Rights is the Incentive Mechanism for Conserving and Innovative Use of Germplasm . . . . . . 472
11.1.3 Access and Benefit-Sharing Constitute the Effective Mechanism for Protecting Sovereign Rights and Interests of Conservationists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
11.1.4 Value Assessment and Protection of Property Rights Will Strengthen the Roles of Ensuring Food Security by Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
11.2 Value Assessment of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
11.2.1 Basic Concepts and Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
11.2.2 Categories of Value of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 475
11.2.3 Methods of Valuating Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 478
11.2.4 Analysis on Composition of Value of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
11.2.5 Value Assessment Approach of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . 482
11.2.6 Asset Management of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . 485
11.3 Protection of Property Rights of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . 487
11.3.1 Basic Concepts and Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
11.3.2 Affirmation of Fundamental Rights on Crop Germplasm . . . 491
11.3.3 Exploration of Property Rights on Crop Germplasm . . . . . 493
11.3.4 Protection of Intellectual Property Rights Over Crop Germplasm . . .. 496
11.4 Access and Benefit-Sharing Mechanisms of Crop Germplasm . . . . . 501
11.4.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
11.4.2 International Access and Benefit-Sharing of Germplasm . . . . 502
11.4.3 Practices in Access and Benefit-Sharing of Crop Germplasm in China .. . . . . . 506
11.5 Trends and Outlooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
11.5.1 Strengthening Research and Application of Germplasm Valuation . . .. . . . 508
11.5.2 Promotion of Property Right Protection for Germplasm . . . 509
11.5.3 Promotion of Establishment and Implementation of Access and Benefit-Sharing System. . . . . . . . . . . . 510
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
CHAPTER 12
Management of Crop Germplasm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
12.1 International Management of Crop Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . 513
12.1.1 International Management System of Crop Germplasm. . . . 514
12.1.2 International System for the Conservation and Utilization of Crop Germplasm…515
12.1.3 International Operation System for Crop Germplasm. . . . . 517
12.1.4 Cases of Crop Germplasm Management in Selected Countries . .. 518
12.2 Management of Crop Germplasm in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
12.2.1 Management Systems of Crop Germplasm in China . . . . . 523
12.2.2 Conservation and Utilization Systems of Crop Germplasm in China. . . . 528
12.2.3 Operation System of Crop Germplasm in China . . . . . . . 530
12.2.4 Operational Safeguard Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
12.3 Trends in Crop Germplasm Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
12.3.1 Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
12.3.2 Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
